Endangered Languages Project

Vulnerable

20 percent certain, based on the evidence available
~24,500
Native speakers worldwide
MORE ON SPEAKER NUMBERS
"According to the 1991 population census, Kaokoland is a district with an area of 58.190 km2 inhabited by a population of 26.313 people that is 1,88% of the total population of Namibia. Kaokoland is a multilingual district, where Otjiherero, Oshiwambo, Oluzimba, Olunkambwe, Otjingumbi, Otjitwa, Otjihakaona and Otjikuvare are spoken. Otjiherero is spoken by approximately 24.500 people that is 93,1% of the total population in Kaokoland."

DATE OF INFO: 1991

INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT: Otjiherero Subject Committee
LANGUAGE CONTEXT COMMENTS: "Some of the Ovaherero who moved southwards, went back to Kaokoland and they are called Ovandamuranda which means they came from the land of Damaras. There is a group of Ovaherero known as Ovatjimbahuro. This is a group in Kaokoland who originally came from Ovamboland. They are literally Ovatjimba from Otjihuro (Otjihuro = Ovamboland). There is another group of Ovaherero in Kaokoland known as Ovatjimbatjimba. They are proper Ovatjimba... All these Ovaherero speak a language well known as Otjiherero... Presently Otjiherero in school books is regarded as a standard dialect. It tends to be closer to the Hereroland West dialect, because over the past years all members of the Otjiherero Subject Committee (responsible for prescribing school books) were speakers of this dialect."

PLACES: Namibia; Angola; Botswana

LOCATION DESCRIPTION: "Otjiherero as a language is spoken in rural areas, such as Kaokoland, Hereroland West, Hereroland East, Omaruru and the Aminuis reserve. Outside the Namibian borders Otjiherero speakers live in Angola and Botswana."

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS: "According to oral traditions relating to Bantu migrations, the Ovaherero group, as a member of the South-Western Bantu groups, migrated into Namibia many years ago from the Great Lakes, after having lived in Angola for about 100 years. In their own oral narrations, the Ovaherero call the place of their origin Ombandwa. They crossed the Kunene river into Namibia at Okarundu kaMbeti. They stayed in Kaokoland for many years as nomads then moved southwards in hope of better grazing, until they reached Omaruru, Otjomuise (well known as Windhoek today), Hereroland West and East and other places in Namibia where they find themselves today."

MORE ON SPEAKER NUMBERS
"The ethnic composition of the Kaokoland natives is comprised of closely related Herero-speaking groups resulting, in fact, from relatively recent divisions of the same Herero stock... Out of a total population of 13 000, there are about 5 000 Himba while the Herero, Tjimba-Herero and Ndamuranda, who may be classified with the Herero, number approximately 6 500. The remaining 1 500 are made up of several smaller groups...

According to tradition the Tjimba were in South-west Angola long before the Herero, but because of extended cohabitation, they have now adopted the Herero language as well as various other elements of Herero culture. They have, for example, corresponding matri- and patrilineal clans, the associated stateless political system, patrilineally organised local groups with their sacred fires, etc. The Tjimba are therefore regarded as a related Herero-speaking group which is being progressively assimilated into Himba society...

The Zemba are recognised as a closely related Herero-speaking group, which has its own tribal area in Angola and is there known as the Zimba... Some families have completely adopted the Herero pastoralist culture, and no longer practice the profession of their forebears.

The Kaokoland Thwa reside among the Himba and have adopted the Herero language and culture...

The Zemba and Hakaona are closely related Herero-speaking peoples of South-western Angola...

Their [Thwa's] subsequent extensive dealings with the Himba and Herero eventually resulted in the loss of their original language and culture... Those [Thwa] that reside among the Himba have adopted the Herero language as well as various elements of Herero culture...

[There are] the following eight Herero-speaking groups of Kaokoland: Herero, Tjimba-Herero, Ndamuranda, Himba, Hakaona, Zemba, Tjimba and Thwa."

The ethnic composition of the population is at present approximately as follows: Himba 5 000; Tjimba-Herero 3 500; Herero 3 000; Zemba and Hakaona 500; Thwa 250; Tjimba 150; Others (including 500 Ovambo) 600.

LANGUAGE CONTEXT COMMENTS: "The possession of a non-centralised political system is a general feature of all Herero-speaking groups. This type of organisation is directly due to the segmentary nature of descent groups, which are comprised of a number of socially and politically equal unilinear kin groups."

PLACES: Namibia; Angola

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS: "The ethnic image of the Herero-speaking group is a rather fragmentary one. Considerable cultural differences resulted from diverging historical, social, and environmental factors, as may be observed from the peoples’ dispersion over vast areas in South West Africa, Botswana and Angola. The four major geographic divisions are Hereroland and adjacent areas (Vedder, 1938), Kaokoland (van Warmelo, 1951), Ngamiland (Gibson, 1956), and portions of Southwestern Angola (Estermann, 1961)."

MORE ON SPEAKER NUMBERS
"Herero has come to be used as a cover term for a number of language varieties. It is not known if adequate linguistic demarcation between Wambo languages (R20) and Herero languages (R30) is possible at all points of their border. ... The number of speakers of Herero is probably approaching a fifth of a million (extrapolating from Grimes 2000)."

MORE ON VITALITY

"... only two secondary schools offer [Herero] as a full subject in the curriculum."

SPEAKER ATTITUDE

"Many seem not to value the language too highly, except in traditional contexts, believing in the educational and economic advantages of now English, but formerly Afrikaans"

OTHER LANGUAGES USED BY THE COMMUNITY

English

At risk

20 percent certain, based on the evidence available
113,000
Native speakers worldwide
MORE ON SPEAKER NUMBERS
"The 1991 census counted some 113 000 speakers of Otjiherero, which constitutes approximately eight percent of the total population of Namibia... The entire Ovaherero population can be subdivided into four main groups, namely, the central Ovaherero in central Namibia, the Kaokolanders (or western Ovaherero) in Kaokoland, the Ovambanderu (or eastern Ovaherero) in eastern Namibia and the Botswana Ovaherero. The dialect spoken by the central Ovaherero is called Central Otjiherero, or just Otjiherero as it is the basis for standardisation (that is, the norm variety). The dialect spoken by the Ovambanderu, Otjimbanderu, is assumed to have been more divergent from Central Otjiherero in the past. Partly owing to the influence of the standardisation of Central Otjiherero, the two dialects have largely converged, or rather, the distinctiveness of Otjimbanderu has suffered under the influence of the standardised Central Otjiherero... In Kaokoland there are also several Angolan immigrant groups, many of which are either Ovaherero or at least closely related to the Ovaherero, andJ they speak mutually intelligible languages or even Otjiherero dialects, including Otjitwa, Otjihakaona, Otjikuvare, Oluthimba, Olungambwe, and Otjingumbi."

LANGUAGE CONTEXT COMMENTS: "Otjiherero is recognised as a national language and is thus used in education, administration and radio broadcasting."
More on Orthography: "The orthography for Otjiherero was first published in 1968, and revised in 1974 and 1933. As for the linguistic publications on Otjiherero, much of these seem to published in German (especially the earlier literature). Probably the earliest comprehensive grammar, written in German, was published by (1857). Several other grammars have since been published, for instance Kolbe (1888), Brincker (1897), Viehe (1897), Meinhof (1928) and Vedder (1958), all in German, and Booysen (1982), written in Afrikaans. With regard to dictionaries, among the early ones we can note an English- Otjiherero dictionary compiled by Kolbe (1883), an Otjiherero-German by Brincker (1886) and a German-Otjiherero by Irle (1917a). More recent dictionaries include an English-Otjiherero/Otjiherero-English by Gestwicki (1966), and a Otjiherero-Afrikaans-English/Afrikaans-Otjiherero/English- Otjiherero by Viljoen & Kamupingene (1983)."

LOCATION DESCRIPTION: Namibia

Vulnerable

20 percent certain, based on the evidence available
19,000-20,000
Native speakers worldwide
Ethnic population
100,000
MORE ON SPEAKER NUMBERS
"The inhabitants here from a subgroup of the Herero, a pastoral people with a membership of about 100,000... The population of Otjiherero speaking people in Kaokoland is given as 19-20 000 people (Els 1984:47), where half of these... as designated as Ovahimba. Kaokoland is inhabited by people who speak Otjiherero - some 95% of the population use this language."

DATE OF INFO: 1984

LANGUAGE CONTEXT COMMENTS: "The population of Otjiherero people "

PLACES: Namibia

LOCATION DESCRIPTION: Kaokoland, northwestern Namibia

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS: "Located mainly in Namibia, but also found in southern Angola and western Botsawana."

ALSO KNOWN AS		Ochiherero, Otjiherero
CLASSIFICATION		Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Benue-Congo, Southern Bantoid
CODE AUTHORITY		ISO 639-3
LANGUAGE CODE		her
VARIANTS & DIALECTS		Central Herero Mbandieru (East Herero Mbanderu)
DOWNLOAD		As csv
MORE RESOURCES		OLAC search

			2014	Glottolog 2.3							Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology			http://glottolog.org	Hammarström, Harald & Forkel, Robert & Haspelmath, Martin & Nordhoff, Sebastian	Hammarström, Harald & Forkel, Robert & Haspelmath, Martin & Nordhoff, Sebastian. 2014. Glottolog 2.3. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. (Available online at http://glottolog.org)																-21.02, 20.57
			1998	Few People, Many Tongues: The Languages of Namibia		222	Windhoek, Namibia: Gamsberg Macmillan								Jouni F. Maho	Maho, Jouni F. 1998. Few People, Many Tongues: The Languages of Namibia. Windhoek, Namibia: Gamsberg Macmillan. x+222pp. (Survey of the linguistic typology and the sociolinguistics of the Namibian languages. Revision (heavy) of Maho (1993).)	HHOLD		113,000		100000	"The 1991 census counted some 113 000 speakers of Otjiherero, which constitutes approximately eight percent of the total population of Namibia... The entire Ovaherero population can be subdivided into four main groups, namely, the central Ovaherero in central Namibia, the Kaokolanders (or western Ovaherero) in Kaokoland, the Ovambanderu (or eastern Ovaherero) in eastern Namibia and the Botswana Ovaherero. The dialect spoken by the central Ovaherero is called Central Otjiherero, or just Otjiherero as it is the basis for standardisation (that is, the norm variety). The dialect spoken by the Ovambanderu, Otjimbanderu, is assumed to have been more divergent from Central Otjiherero in the past. Partly owing to the influence of the standardisation of Central Otjiherero, the two dialects have largely converged, or rather, the distinctiveness of Otjimbanderu has suffered under the influence of the standardised Central Otjiherero... In Kaokoland there are also several Angolan immigrant groups, many of which are either Ovaherero or at least closely related to the Ovaherero, andJ they speak mutually intelligible languages or even Otjiherero dialects, including Otjitwa, Otjihakaona, Otjikuvare, Oluthimba, Olungambwe, and Otjingumbi."			"Otjiherero is recognised as a national language and is thus used in education, administration and radio broadcasting."		At risk (20 percent certain, based on the evidence available)				Namibia
			2003	Herero	The Bantu Languages	581-608	Routledge			London		29			Elderkin, Edward D.							"Herero has come to be used as a cover term for a number of language varieties. It is not known if adequate linguistic demarcation between Wambo languages (R20) and Herero languages (R30) is possible at all points of their border. ... The number of speakers of Herero is probably approaching a fifth of a million (extrapolating from Grimes 2000)."	English	"Many seem not to value the language too highly, except in traditional contexts, believing in the educational and economic advantages of now English, but formerly Afrikaans"				"... only two secondary schools offer [Herero] as a full subject in the curriculum."
			1993	Languages in Kaokoland and Herero dialects		72-88		Logos	13						Kavari, Jekura Uaurika	Kavari, Jekura Uaurika. 1993. "Languages in Kaokoland and Herero Dialects." In Logos, 13: 72-88.	EBALL		~24,500	1991	10000-99999	"According to the 1991 population census, Kaokoland is a district with an area of 58.190 km2 inhabited by a population of 26.313 people that is 1,88% of the total population of Namibia. Kaokoland is a multilingual district, where Otjiherero, Oshiwambo, Oluzimba, Olunkambwe, Otjingumbi, Otjitwa, Otjihakaona and Otjikuvare are spoken. Otjiherero is spoken by approximately 24.500 people that is 93,1% of the total population in Kaokoland."			"Some of the Ovaherero who moved southwards, went back to Kaokoland and they are called Ovandamuranda which means they came from the land of Damaras. There is a group of Ovaherero known as Ovatjimbahuro. This is a group in Kaokoland who originally came from Ovamboland. They are literally Ovatjimba from Otjihuro (Otjihuro = Ovamboland). There is another group of Ovaherero in Kaokoland known as Ovatjimbatjimba. They are proper Ovatjimba... All these Ovaherero speak a language well known as Otjiherero... Presently Otjiherero in school books is regarded as a standard dialect. It tends to be closer to the Hereroland West dialect, because over the past years all members of the Otjiherero Subject Committee (responsible for prescribing school books) were speakers of this dialect."	Otjiherero Subject Committee	Vulnerable (20 percent certain, based on the evidence available)		"According to oral traditions relating to Bantu migrations, the Ovaherero group, as a member of the South-Western Bantu groups, migrated into Namibia many years ago from the Great Lakes, after having lived in Angola for about 100 years. In their own oral narrations, the Ovaherero call the place of their origin Ombandwa. They crossed the Kunene river into Namibia at Okarundu kaMbeti. They stayed in Kaokoland for many years as nomads then moved southwards in hope of better grazing, until they reached Omaruru, Otjomuise (well known as Windhoek today), Hereroland West and East and other places in Namibia where they find themselves today."	Namibia; Angola; Botswana	"Otjiherero as a language is spoken in rural areas, such as Kaokoland, Hereroland West, Hereroland East, Omaruru and the Aminuis reserve. Outside the Namibian borders Otjiherero speakers live in Angola and Botswana."
B	June, 21	4	1974	The herero-speaking peoples of Kaokoland				Cimbebasia	2		State Museum, Windhoek				Malan, Johannes Stefanus	Malan, Johannes Stefanus. 1974. The herero-speaking peoples of Kaokoland. Cimbebasia (B) 2. 113-129						"The ethnic composition of the Kaokoland natives is comprised of closely related Herero-speaking groups resulting, in fact, from relatively recent divisions of the same Herero stock... Out of a total population of 13 000, there are about 5 000 Himba while the Herero, Tjimba-Herero and Ndamuranda, who may be classified with the Herero, number approximately 6 500. The remaining 1 500 are made up of several smaller groups... According to tradition the Tjimba were in South-west Angola long before the Herero, but because of extended cohabitation, they have now adopted the Herero language as well as various other elements of Herero culture. They have, for example, corresponding matri- and patrilineal clans, the associated stateless political system, patrilineally organised local groups with their sacred fires, etc. The Tjimba are therefore regarded as a related Herero-speaking group which is being progressively assimilated into Himba society... The Zemba are recognised as a closely related Herero-speaking group, which has its own tribal area in Angola and is there known as the Zimba... Some families have completely adopted the Herero pastoralist culture, and no longer practice the profession of their forebears. The Kaokoland Thwa reside among the Himba and have adopted the Herero language and culture... The Zemba and Hakaona are closely related Herero-speaking peoples of South-western Angola... Their [Thwa's] subsequent extensive dealings with the Himba and Herero eventually resulted in the loss of their original language and culture... Those [Thwa] that reside among the Himba have adopted the Herero language as well as various elements of Herero culture... [There are] the following eight Herero-speaking groups of Kaokoland: Herero, Tjimba-Herero, Ndamuranda, Himba, Hakaona, Zemba, Tjimba and Thwa." The ethnic composition of the population is at present approximately as follows: Himba 5 000; Tjimba-Herero 3 500; Herero 3 000; Zemba and Hakaona 500; Thwa 250; Tjimba 150; Others (including 500 Ovambo) 600.			"The possession of a non-centralised political system is a general feature of all Herero-speaking groups. This type of organisation is directly due to the segmentary nature of descent groups, which are comprised of a number of socially and politically equal unilinear kin groups."				"The ethnic image of the Herero-speaking group is a rather fragmentary one. Considerable cultural differences resulted from diverging historical, social, and environmental factors, as may be observed from the peoples’ dispersion over vast areas in South West Africa, Botswana and Angola. The four major geographic divisions are Hereroland and adjacent areas (Vedder, 1938), Kaokoland (van Warmelo, 1951), Ngamiland (Gibson, 1956), and portions of Southwestern Angola (Estermann, 1961)."	Namibia; Angola
			1998	An Ovahimba political landscape: patterns of authority in northwestern Namibia									Göteborg University, Department of Social Anthropology		Christofer Wärnlöf	Wärnlöf, Christofer. 1998. An Ovahimba political landscape: patterns of authority in northwestern Namibia. Dept. of Social Anthropology, Göteborg Univ.		100,000	19,000-20,000	1984	10000-99999	"The inhabitants here from a subgroup of the Herero, a pastoral people with a membership of about 100,000... The population of Otjiherero speaking people in Kaokoland is given as 19-20 000 people (Els 1984:47), where half of these... as designated as Ovahimba. Kaokoland is inhabited by people who speak Otjiherero - some 95% of the population use this language."			"The population of Otjiherero people "		Vulnerable (20 percent certain, based on the evidence available)		"Located mainly in Namibia, but also found in southern Angola and western Botsawana."	Namibia	Kaokoland, northwestern Namibia

Herero

Language metadata

Language information by source

Vulnerable

20 percent certain, based on the evidence available

~24,500

At risk

20 percent certain, based on the evidence available

113,000

Vulnerable

20 percent certain, based on the evidence available

19,000-20,000

Discussion

Herero

Language metadata

Language information by source

Vulnerable

20 percent certain, based on the evidence available

~24,500

At risk

20 percent certain, based on the evidence available

113,000

Vulnerable

20 percent certain, based on the evidence available

19,000-20,000

Discussion

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